Viking ship

Viking ships were marine vessels of unique structure, used in Scandinavia from the Viking Age throughout the Middle Ages. The boat-types were quite varied, depending on what the ship was intended for,^[1] but they were generally characterized as being slender and flexible boats, with symmetrical ends with true keel. They were clinker built, which is the overlapping of planks riveted together. Some might have had a dragon's head or other circular object protruding from the bow and stern for design, although this is only inferred from historical sources. Viking ships were used both for military purposes and for long-distance trade, exploration and colonization.^[2]

In the literature, Viking ships are usually seen divided into two broad categories: merchant ships and warships, the latter resembling narrow "war canoes" with less load capacity, but higher speed. However, these categories are overlapping; some transport ships would also form part of war fleets. As a rule, ship lanes in Scandinavia followed coastal waters, hence a majority of vessels were of a lighter design, while a few types, such as the knarr, could navigate the open ocean. The Viking ships ranged from the Baltic Sea to far from the Scandinavian homelands, to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Newfoundland, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and Africa.^[3]

The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages.

Development

The ship has been functioning as the centerpiece of Scandinavian culture for millennia, serving both pragmatic and religious purposes, and its importance was already deeply rooted in the Scandinavian culture when the Viking Age began. Scandinavia is a region with relatively high inland mountain ranges, dense forests and easy access to the sea with many natural ports. Consequently, trade routes were primarily operated via shipping, as inland travel was both more hazardous and cumbersome. Many stone engravings from the Nordic Stone Age and in particular the Nordic Bronze Age, depict ships in various situations and valuable ships were sacrificed as part of ceremonial votive offerings since at least the Nordic Iron Age, as evidenced by the Hjortspring and Nydam boats.

The Viking Age saw the first local developments of trading ports into forts and coastal towns, all of which were deeply dependent on the North Sea and the Baltic Sea for survival and growth. Control of the waterways was of great economical and political importance, and consequently, ships were in high demand. Because of their overwhelming importance, ships became a mainstay of the Viking religion, as they evolved into symbols of power and prowess. The Hedeby coins, among the earliest known Danish currency, have impressions of ships as emblems, showing the importance of naval vessels in the area. Through such cultural and practical significance, the Viking ship progressed into the most powerful, advanced naval vessel in Viking Age Europe.

Knarr

Knarr is the Norse term for ships that were built for cargo transport. A length of about 54 feet (16 m) and a beam of 15 feet (4.6 m) are not untypical, and the hull could be capable of carrying up to 24 tons.^[4] Overall displacement: 50 tons. This is shorter than the Gokstad type of longships, but knarrs are sturdier by design and they depended mostly on sail-power, only putting oars to use as auxiliaries if there was no wind on the open water. Because of this, the knarr was used for longer voyages, ocean-going transports and more hazardous trips than the Gokstad type. It was capable of sailing 75 miles (121 km) in one day, and held a crew of about 20–30. Knarrs^[5] routinely crossed the North Atlantic in the Viking Age, carrying livestock and goods to and from Greenland and the North Atlantic islands. The design of the knarr later influenced the design of the cog, used in the Baltic Sea by the Hanseatic League. Examples of Viking Age knarr are Skuldelev 1, which was excavated in Denmark in 1962 and is believed to be from about 1030 AD, and the Äskekärr ship [sv], which was found in Sweden in 1933 and is believed to be from about 930 AD.^[6]

Longship

The Gokstad ship, on display at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, Norway

Longships were naval vessels made and used by the Vikings from Scandinavia and Iceland for trade, commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age. The longship's design evolved over many years, as seen in the Nydam and Kvalsund ships. The character and appearance of these ships have been reflected in Scandinavian boatbuilding traditions until today. The average speed of Viking ships varied from ship to ship but lay in the range of 5 to 10 knots (9 to 19 km/h), and the maximum speed of a longship under favorable conditions was around 15 knots (28 km/h).^[7]

The long-ship is as a graceful, long, narrow, light, wooden boat with a shallow draft hull designed for speed. The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages. Longships were also double-ended, the symmetrical bow and stern allowing the ship to reverse direction quickly without having to turn around. Longships were fitted with oars along almost the entire length of the boat itself. Later versions sported a rectangular sail on a single mast which was used to replace or augment the effort of the rowers, particularly during long journeys.

Longships can be classified into a number of different types, depending on size, construction details, and prestige. The most common way to classify longships is by the number of rowing positions on board. Types ranged from the Karvi, with 13 rowing benches, to the Busse, one of which has been found with an estimated 34 rowing positions.

Longships were the epitome of Scandinavian naval power at the time and were highly valued possessions. They were owned by coastal farmers and assembled by the king to form the leidang in times of conflict, in order to have a powerful naval force at his disposal. While longships were deployed by the Norse in warfare, there are no descriptions of naval tactics such as ramming, etc. Instead, the ships would sometimes be lashed together in battle to form a steady platform for infantry warfare. Longships were called dragonships (drakuskippan) by the Franks because they had a dragon-shaped prow.^[8]

Karve

The Karve was a small type of Viking longship, with a broad hull somewhat similar to the knarr. They were used for both war and ordinary transport, carrying people, cargo or livestock. Because they were able to navigate in very shallow water, they were also used for coasting. Karves typically had broad beams of approximately 17 feet (5.2 m).

Ship construction

Viking ships varied from other contemporary ships, being generally more seaworthy and lighter. This was achieved through use of clinker (lapstrake) construction. The planks on Viking vessels were rived (split) from large, old-growth trees — especially oak. A ship's hull could be as thin as one inch (2.5 cm), as a rived plank is stronger than a sawed plank found in later craft, resulting in a strong yet supple hull.^[9]

Working up from a stout oaken keel and ribs, the shipwrights would rivet on the planks using wrought iron rivets and roves, reinforced with added support ribs and thwarts. Each tier of planks overlapped the one below, and a caulking of tarred cow's hair was used between planks to create a waterproof hull.

Remarkably large vessels could be constructed using traditional clinker construction. Dragon-ships carrying 100 warriors were not uncommon.^[10]

Furthermore, during the early Viking Age, oar ports replaced rowlocks, allowing oars to be stored while the ship was at sail and to provide better angles for rowing. The largest ships of the era could travel five to six knots using oar power and up to ten knots under sail.^[11]

With such technological improvements, the Vikings began to make more and more ocean voyages, as their ships were more seaworthy. However, in order to sail in ocean waters, the Vikings needed to develop methods of relatively precise navigation. Most commonly, a ship's pilot drew on traditional knowledge to set the ship's course. Essentially, the Vikings simply used prior familiarity with tides, sailing times, and landmarks in order to route courses. For example, scholars contend that the sighting of a whale allowed the Vikings to determine the direction of a ship. Because whales feed in highly nutritious waters, commonly found in regions where landmasses have pushed deep-water currents towards shallower areas, the sighting of a whale functioned as a signal that land was near.

On the other hand, some academics have proposed that the Vikings also developed more advanced aids to navigation, such as the use of a sun compass. A wooden half-disc found on the shores of Narsarsuaq, Greenland initially seemed to support this hypothesis. However, further investigation of the object revealed that the slits inscribed in the disc are disproportionately spaced, and so the object could not in fact function as an accurate compass. Rather it has been suggested that the instrument is instead a “confession disc” used by priests to count the number of confessions in their parish.^[12] Similarly, researchers and historians continually debate the use of the sunstone in Viking navigation. Because a sunstone is able to polarize light, it is a plausible method for determining direction. By showing which direction light waves are oscillating, the sunstone has the potential to show the sun's position even when the sun is obscured by clouds. The stone changes to a certain color, based on the direction of the waves, but only when the object is held in an area with direct sunlight. Thus, most scholars debate the reliability and the plausibility of using a navigational tool that can only determine direction in such limited conditions.^[13]

Viking sagas routinely tell of voyages where Vikings suffered from being "hafvilla" (bewildered)—voyages beset by fog or bad weather, where they completely lost their sense of direction. This description suggests they did not use a sunstone when the sun was obscured. Moreover, the fact that this same bewilderment could arise when the winds died suggests that the Vikings relied on prevailing winds to navigate, as expected if their skills depended principally on traditional knowledge.^[14]

Ship burial

Prominent men or women in Norse society sometimes received a ship burial. The body of the deceased would be prepared and dressed in fine clothes and then be transported to the burial-place in a wagon drawn by horses. The deceased would be placed on the ship, along with many prized possessions. Horses, dogs and occasionally thralls and households might also be sacrificially killed and buried with the deceased. The origin and meaning of these customs remain unknown. Several examples of Viking ship burials have been excavated, e.g. the Oseberg ship in Norway, containing the remains of two women, the Gokstad ship in Norway, and the Ladby ship in Denmark.

There are literary sources such as the Norse Skjoldunga Saga and the Ynglinga Saga which describe more literal "ship burials" in which the deceased and goods are placed on a boat in the water and the vessel is launched into the sea, sometimes being shot with burning arrows and vanishing into the night, ablaze. Nothcotte Toller, however, states:

Whether such fiery funerals ever actually took place is impossible to know; but it is much more difficult to imagine that a king's body and accompanying treasures would have been simply pushed out to sea, where they would have been in danger of returning, or of falling into the hands of strangers or even enemies who might maltreat the one and plunder the other.^[15]

Burial of ships is an ancient tradition in Scandinavia, stretching back to at least the Nordic Iron Age, as evidenced by the Hjortspring boat (400–300 BC) or the Nydam boats (200–450 AD), for example. Ships and bodies of water have held major spiritual importance in the Norse cultures since at least the Nordic Bronze Age.

Preserved ships

Several original Viking ships have been found through the ages, but only a few have been relatively intact. The most notable of these few ships include:

Gokstad ship: overall length – approximately 23.3 m (76 ft)
Oseberg ship: overall length – approximately 21.5 m (71 ft)
Skuldelev ships: five ships found at the same location, from about 11.2 to 30 m (37 to 98 ft) long
Tune ship: may have been up to 18.7 m (61 ft) long

Examples of other Viking ships, including some that are relatively well-preserved and some, where only very small parts remain:

Äskekärr ship [sv]
Gjellestad ship burial: about 23–24 m (75–79 ft) long (excavation ongoing as of June 2020)
Hedeby 1: estimated about 26–32 m (85–105 ft) long
Kvalsund ship
Ladby ship
Myklebust Ship
Roskilde 6 [da]: found during the expansion of the Viking Ship Museum and the longest known Viking ship at about 37 m (121 ft)

Have been regarded as Viking ships, but from before or after the Viking Age:

Salme ships: from 700 to 750 AD, before the Viking Age
Lapuri ship [fi]: from 1250 to 1300 AD, after the Viking Age

Replicas

Viking ship replicas are one of the more common types of ship replica. Viking, the first Viking ship replica, was built by the Rødsverven shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway. In 1893 it sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition. There are a considerable number of modern reconstructions of Viking Age ships in service around Northern Europe and North America. The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark, has been particularly prolific in building accurate reconstructions of archaeological finds in its collection.

References

^ "Eldar Heide (2014). The early Viking Ship types (Sjøfartshistorisk årbok 2050. 81–153.)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ Jones, Gwyn, A history of the Vikings (Oxford 2001).
^ Were also seen in the Egypt Red Sea
^ Peter Sawyer, (1975) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-285434-6 ISBN 0-19-285434-8
^ Plural of knarr is knerrir.
^ "Discovered: A Viking Ship!" (PDF). www.lodose.eu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Fejl: Siden blev ikke fundet / adgang er ikke tilladt". Vikingeskibsmuseet Roskilde. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
^ Ervan G. Garrison (1998). History of Engineering and Technology: Artful Methods. CRC Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8493-9810-0. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
^ Lapstrake hull schematic Archived 17 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ Stephen Batchelor (30 April 2010). Medieval History For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-470-66460-5.
^ Richard Hall, The World of the Vikings (New York, 2007), 55.
^ Hall, The World of the Vikings, 54.
^ Oscar Noel and Sue Ann Bowling (21 March 1988). "Polar Navigation and the Sky Compass: Article #865". Alaska Science Forum. Archived from the original on 27 April 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
^ Hafvilla: A Note on Norse Navigation, G. J. Marcus, Speculum, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Oct. 1955), pp. 601–05, Published by: Medieval Academy of America, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2849616 Archived 30 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine (accessed 2 November 2011).
^ Thomas Nothcotte Toller (2003). Textual and Material Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. D.S. Brewer. p. 43.

External links

[1] "Eldar Heide (2014). The early Viking Ship types (Sjøfartshistorisk årbok 2050. 81–153.)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2020.

[2] Jones, Gwyn, A history of the Vikings (Oxford 2001).

[3] Were also seen in the Egypt Red Sea

[4] Peter Sawyer, (1975) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-285434-6 ISBN 0-19-285434-8

[5] Plural of knarr is knerrir.

[6] "Discovered: A Viking Ship!" (PDF). www.lodose.eu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2020.

[7] "Fejl: Siden blev ikke fundet / adgang er ikke tilladt". Vikingeskibsmuseet Roskilde. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 6 April 2011.

[8] Ervan G. Garrison (1998). History of Engineering and Technology: Artful Methods. CRC Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8493-9810-0. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2018.

[9] Lapstrake hull schematic Archived 17 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine

[Batchelor2010-10] Stephen Batchelor (30 April 2010). Medieval History For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-470-66460-5.

[11] Richard Hall, The World of the Vikings (New York, 2007), 55.

[12] Hall, The World of the Vikings, 54.

[13] Oscar Noel and Sue Ann Bowling (21 March 1988). "Polar Navigation and the Sky Compass: Article #865". Alaska Science Forum. Archived from the original on 27 April 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2010.

[14] Hafvilla: A Note on Norse Navigation, G. J. Marcus, Speculum, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Oct. 1955), pp. 601–05, Published by: Medieval Academy of America, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2849616 Archived 30 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine (accessed 2 November 2011).

[15] Thomas Nothcotte Toller (2003). Textual and Material Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. D.S. Brewer. p. 43.

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v t e Vikings
Culture	Blót Brisingamen Danegeld Dís Eddas Einherjar Futhark Elder Futhark Younger Futhark Germanic deities Gothi Hnefatafl Holmgang Leysingi Mjölnir Norsemen Norse funeral (ship burial) Norse mythology Norse rituals Old Norse Old Norse religion Raven banner Sagas Skald Seeress Skíðblaðnir Thrall Tyrfing Valhalla Valkyrie Viking Age Viking art Viking runestones Viking Age trade Wergeld Yggdrasil
Ships and navigation	Knarr Longship Viking ships Viking ship replica Visby lenses
Homelands and colonies	North Sea Empire Iceland Greenland Orkney Islands Shetland Faroe Islands North America L'Anse aux Meadows Vinland Jomsborg Kievan Rus'
Expansion	Viking expansion British Isles Danelaw Anglia Mercia York Isle of Man Scotland Wessex France Brittany Normandy Rhineland Pomerania Estonia Iberia Dublin Italy
Battles	Tactics and warfare Battle of Aclea First Battle of Alton Battle of Anglesey Sound Battle of Ashdown Battle of Assandun Battle of Basing Battle of Barry Battle of Bauds Battle of Benfleet Battle of Brávellir Battle of Brentford (1016) Battle of Brissarthe Battle of Brunanburh Battle of Buttington Battle of Cathair Cuan Battle of Chippenham Battle of Clontarf Battle of Confey Battle of Corbridge Battle of Cynwit Battle of Derby Battle of Dollar Battle of Edington Battle of Englefield Battle of Epiphany Battle of Fitjar Battle of Florvåg Battle of Fulford Battle of Fýrisvellir Battle of Glenmama Battle of Hafrsfjord Battle of Helgeå Battle of Hingston Down Battle of the Holme Battle of Hjörungavágr Battle of Islandbridge Battle of Largs Battle of Leuven (891) Battle of London Bridge Battle of Lüneburg Heath Battle of Lyrskov Heath Battle of Mag Femen Battle of Maldon Battle of Meretun Battle of Nesjar Battle of Niså Battle of Norditi Battle of Pinhoe Battle of Rastarkalv Battle of Reading (871) Battle of Renfrew Battle of Remich Battle of Ringmere Battle of Rochester Battle of Sasireti Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu Battle of Skyhill Battle of Stainmore Battle of Stamford (894) Battle of Stamford (918) Battle of Stamford Bridge Battle of Stiklestad Battle of Strangford Lough Battle of Svolder Battle of Sulcoit Battle of Tara (Ireland) Battle of Tarbat Ness Battle of Tempsford Battle of Tettenhall Battle of Thetford Battle of Thimeon Battle of Trans-la-Forêt Battle of York Burning of Luimneach Viking raid on Galicia and Asturias Raids in the Rhineland Raid on Seville Sack of Santiago de Compostela Siege of Asselt Siege of Chartres (911) Siege of Constantinople (860) Sack of Paris Siege of Paris Cnut the Great's invasion of England
Arms, armour and fortifications	Berserker Great Heathen Army Hersir Hird Viking Age arms and armour Halberd Atgeir Skeggöx Dane axe Gjermundbu helmet Yarm helmet Sword Ulfberht Ingelrii Ring Fortress Raid Warfare and Tactics Shield-maiden Svinfylking Formation Varangian Guard
Historical figures	Airdeconut Amlaíb Cenncairech Amlaíb Cuarán Amlaíb Conung Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir) Auisle Bagsecg Berle-Kari Birka female Viking warrior Bjørn (floruit 856–58) Bjorn Asbrandsson Bjarni Herjólfsson Björn Ironside Bjorn the Easterner Cnut Egill Skallagrímsson Eohric of East Anglia Eric Bloodaxe Erik the Red Eric I of Denmark Eiríkr Hákonarson Freydís Eiríksdóttir Freygeirr Garðar Svavarsson Godfrid Haraldsson Godfrid, Duke of Frisia Grímur Kamban Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir Gunnar Hámundarson Guthred Guthrum Hakon Rognvaldsson Haakon the Good Haakon Sigurdsson Halfdan Long-Leg Halfdan Ragnarsson Hagrold Harald Bluetooth Harald Fairhair Harald Hardrada Harald Wartooth Hastein Hemming Halfdansson Hervor Hrafna-Flóki Vilgerðarson Hvitserk Ingvar the Far-Travelled Ingólfr Arnarson Ivar the Boneless Jomsvikings Ketilsdóttir Ketill Flatnose Ketil Trout (Iceland) Lagertha Leif Erikson Magnus Barefoot Naddodd Náttfari Olaf Tryggvason Olav Haraldsson Olaf the White Olof Skötkonung Orm Storolfsson Ohthere of Hålogaland Ottir Palnatoke Ragnar Lodbrok Ragnar Ragnarsson Ragnhild Eriksdotter Ragnall ua Imair Raud the Strong Reginheri Rognvald Eysteinsson Rollo Rorik Rusla Snæfrithr Svásadottir Sigvaldi Strut-Haraldsson Sigurd Ring Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye Sigurd the Stout Sitric Caech Skalla-Grímr Snorri Sturluson Steinunn Refsdóttir Styrbjörn the Strong Sweyn Asleifsson Sweyn Forkbeard Þorbjörg Lítilvölva Thorfinn the Mighty Thorfinn Torf-Einarsson Thorkell the Tall Thorir Hund Thorolf Kveldulfsson Thorstein the Red Tryggvi the Pretender Turgesius Valtoke Gormsson Vagn Åkesson Veborg Ubba Uí Ímair Unn the Deep-Minded
Runestones	Ballstorp Runestone Baltic area runestones Danish Runic Inscription 66 Danish Runic Inscription 154 Danish Runic Inscription 380 Egtved Runestone England runestones Greece runestones Gunnar's bridge runestones Hagby Runestones Hakon Jarl runestones Hällestad Runestones Ingvar runestones Italy runestones Karlevi Runestone Lingsberg Runestones Norra Härene Runestone Orkesta Runestones Runestones at Aspa Runestones of Högby Sædinge Runestone Sigtrygg Runestones Simris Runestones Sjörup Runestone Småland Runic Inscription 48 Södermanland Runic Inscription 174 Södermanland Runic Inscription 333 Sparlösa Runestone Stangeland stone Stone of Eric Runestone U 582 Uppland Runic Inscription 158 Varangian runestones Västergötland Runic Inscription 40 Västra Nöbbelöv Runestone Viking runestones
Related	Viking revival Viking Ship Museum (Oslo) Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)