Sambucus

Sambucus
Sambucus berries (elderberries)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Asterids
Order:	Dipsacales
Family:	Adoxaceae
Genus:	Sambucus L.
Species
See text

Sambucus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae. The various species are commonly referred to as elder, elderflower or elderberry.

Description

The oppositely arranged leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is 5–30 centimetres (2–12 in) long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colored flowers in late spring; these are followed by clusters of small black, blue-black, or red berries (rarely yellow or white).

• 
  S. canadensis branches and inflorescence
• 
  Inflorescence of S. canadensis
• 
  Flowers of S. nigra

Chemistry

Structure of anthocyanins, the blue pigments in elderberries

Sambucus fruit is rich in anthocyanidins that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple coloration that turns reddish on dilution with water.

Taxonomy

The taxonomy of the genus Sambucus L., originally described by Carl Linnaeus and hence its botanical authority, has been complicated by its wide geographical distribution and morphological diversity. This has led to overdescription of the species and infraspecific taxa (subspecies, varieties or forms).

The genus was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified as Adoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus Adoxa.

Species recognized in this genus are:

• Sambucus adnata  – Himalaya and eastern Asia
• Sambucus australasica – New Guinea, eastern Australia
• Sambucus australis – South America
• Sambucus canadensis – eastern North America
• Sambucus cerulea – western North America
• Sambucus ebulus – central and southern Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia
• Sambucus gaudichaudiana – south eastern Australia
• Sambucus javanica – southeastern Asia
• Sambucus lanceolata – Madeira Island
• Sambucus latipinna  – Korea, southeast Siberia
• Sambucus melanocarpa  – western North America
• Sambucus microbotrys  – southwest North America
• Sambucus nigra – Europe and North America
• Sambucus orbiculata – western North America
• Sambucus palmensis – Canary Islands
• Sambucus peruviana – Costa Rica, Panama and northwest South America
• Sambucus pubens – northern North America
• Sambucus racemosa – northern, central and southeastern Europe, northwest Asia, western North America
• Sambucus sibirica  – eastern Asia
• Sambucus sieboldiana – Japan and Korea
• Sambucus simpsonii  – southeastern United States
• Sambucus tigranii – southwest Asia
• Sambucus velutina – southwestern North America
• Sambucus wightiana  – western Himalayas
• Sambucus williamsii  – northeast Asia

Etymology

The name comes from the Ancient Greek word σαμβύκη (sambū́kē), an ancient wind instrument, about the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.

Distribution and habitat

The genus occurs in temperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers, and fruit.

Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a nitrogen-dependent plant and thus is generally found near places of organic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as a hedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily, and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation of being 'an instant hedge'. It is not generally affected by soil type or pH level and will virtually grow anywhere sufficient sunlight is available.

Ecology

S. callicarpa berries are consumed by birds and mammals. In Northern California, elderberries are eaten by migrating band-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail, buff ermine, dot moth, emperor moth, engrailed moth, swallow-tailed moth and the V-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark. Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of European elder (S. nigra) attract numerous, minute flower thrips which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences.

Cultivation

Cultivation in Austria

Traditional uses of Sambucus involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component extracts. Ornamental varieties of Sambucus are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife. Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals: S. canadensis, S. nigra, and S. racemosa.

Toxicity

The uncooked berries and other parts of plants from this genus are poisonous. Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of Sambucus plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties. Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness. In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked S. mexicana berries, leaves, and stems. The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.

The seeds of S. callicarpa are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.

Elderberries, raw
Sambucus spp.

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	305 kJ (73 kcal)
Carbohydrates	18.4 g
Dietary fiber	7 g
Fat	0.5 g
Protein	0.66 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. 3% 30 μg Thiamine (B1) 6% 0.07 mg Riboflavin (B2) 5% 0.06 mg Niacin (B3) 3% 0.5 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 3% 0.14 mg Vitamin B6 14% 0.23 mg Folate (B9) 2% 6 μg Vitamin C 40% 36 mg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 3% 38 mg Iron 9% 1.6 mg Magnesium 1% 5 mg Phosphorus 3% 39 mg Potassium 9% 280 mg Zinc 1% 0.11 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	79.80 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Uses

The cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of Sambucus are edible.

Nutrition

Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of protein and fat. In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2 oz) amount, elderberries supply 305 kilojoules (73 kcal) of food energy and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 43% of the Daily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of vitamin B₆ (18% DV) and iron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content.

Dietary supplement

Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as dietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as flu, colds, constipation, and other conditions, served as a tea, extract or in a capsule. The use of elderberry supplements increased early in the COVID-19 pandemic. There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile. The raw or unripe fruit of S. nigra or its extracts may contain a cyanogenic glycoside that is potentially toxic.

Traditional medicine

Dried elderberries ready for steeping

Although practitioners of traditional medicine have used elderberry over centuries, there is little high-quality clinical evidence that such practices provide benefits, though the US National Institutes of Health have stated that "some preliminary research suggests that elderberry may relieve symptoms of flu or other upper respiratory infections."

Pigments

The pigments are used as colorants in various products, and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the US Food and Drug Administration as allowable in certified organic food products. In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural color additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law. Fibers can be dyed with elderberry juice (using alum as a mordant) to give a "muted purple" shade.

Other

The berry of S. callicarpa can be made into wine. The flowers of S. nigra are used to produce elderflower cordial. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.

Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup. Additionally, they have been hollowed out and used as flutes, blowguns, and syringes. In addition, the elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.

The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.

In culture

Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region. In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit. If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge. The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother. Romani people believe burning elder wood brings bad luck.

A wand made from the branch of an elder tree plays a pivotal role in the final book of the Harry Potter series, which was almost named Harry Potter and the Elder Wand.

General and cited references

• Applequist, W.L. (January 2015). "A brief review of recent controversies in the taxonomy and nomenclature of Sambucus nigra sensu lato". Acta Horticulturae. 1061 (1061): 25–33. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2015.1061.1. PMC 4859216. PMID 27158181.
• Boland, Todd (15 September 2012). "Ornamental Elderberries". Dave's Garden. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
• Eriksson, Torsten; Donoghue, Michael J. (1997). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Sambucus and Adoxa (Adoxoideae, Adoxaceae) Based on Nuclear Ribosomal ITS Sequences and Preliminary Morphological Data". Systematic Botany. 22 (3): 555–573. doi:10.2307/2419828. JSTOR 2419828.
• TPL (2013). "Sambucus". Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
• This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: National Institutes of Health's National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health entry for European Elder

Further reading

• Bolli, R. (1994). "Revision of the Genus Sambucus". Dissertationes Botanicae. 223.
• Donoghue, Michael J.; Eriksson, Torsten; Reeves, Patrick A.; Olmstead, Richard G. (2001). "Phylogeny and phylogenetic taxonomy of Dipsacales, with special reference to Sinadoxa and Tetradoxa (Adoxaceae)" (PDF). Harvard Papers in Botany. 6 (2): 459–479. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2019-07-24.

External links

• USDA National Organic Program National List Petition for Elderberry Juice Color