Jump to content

Grid energy storage

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Grid storage" redirects here. For data storage with grid computing, see Grid-oriented storage.

Simplified electrical grid with energy storage
Simplified grid energy flow with and without idealized energy storage for the course of one day

Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy storage) is a collection of methods used for energy storage on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Electrical energy is stored during times when electricity is plentiful and inexpensive (especially from variable renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar power) or when demand is low, and later returned to the grid when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher.

As of 2023, the largest form of grid energy storage is pumped-storage hydroelectricity, with utility-scale batteries and behind-the-meter batteries coming second and third.[1] Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak demand, and for use when production unexpectedly falls giving time for slower responding resources to be brought online. Two forms of storage are suited for seasonal storage: green hydrogen, produced via electrolysis and thermal energy storage (such as pumped thermal energy storage for electricity). As the round-trip efficiency is low, significant hydrogen needs to be stored.[2]

Energy storage is one option to making grids more flexible. An other solution is the use of more dispatchable power plants that can change their output rapidly, for instance peaking power plants to fill in supply gaps. Demand response can shift load to other times and interconnections between regions can balance out fluctuations in renewables production.[3]

Benefits

[edit]

Energy storage can provide multiple benefits to the grid: it can move electricity from periods of low prices to high prices, it can help make the grid more stable (for instance help regulate the frequency of the grid), and help reduce investment into transmission infrastructure.[4] Any electrical power grid must match electricity production to consumption, both of which vary significantly over time. Any combination of energy storage and demand response has these advantages:

  • fuel-based power plants (i.e. coal, oil, gas, nuclear) can be more efficiently and easily operated at constant production levels
  • electricity generated by intermittent sources can be stored and used later, whereas it would otherwise have to be transmitted for sale elsewhere, or shut down
  • peak generating or transmission capacity can be reduced by the total potential of all storage plus deferrable loads (see demand side management), saving the expense of this capacity
  • more stable pricing – the cost of the storage or demand management is included in pricing so there is less variation in power rates charged to customers, or alternatively (if rates are kept stable by law) less loss to the utility from expensive on-peak wholesale power rates when peak demand must be met by imported wholesale power
  • emergency preparedness – vital needs can be met reliably even with no transmission or generation going on while non-essential needs are deferred

Energy derived from solar, tidal and wind sources inherently varies on time scales ranging from minutes to weeks or longer – the amount of electricity produced varies with time of day, moon phase, season, and random factors such as the weather. Thus, renewables in the absence of storage present special challenges to electric utilities. While hooking up many separate wind sources can reduce the overall variability, solar is reliably not available at night, and tidal power shifts with the moon, so slack tides occur four times a day.

How much this affects any given utility varies significantly. In a summer peak utility, more solar can generally be absorbed and matched to demand. In winter peak utilities, to a lesser degree, wind correlates to heating demand and can be used to meet that demand. Depending on these factors, beyond about 20–40% of total generation, grid-connected intermittent sources such as solar power and wind power tend to require investment in grid interconnections, grid energy storage or demand-side management.

In an electrical grid without energy storage, generation that relies on energy stored within fuels (coal, biomass, natural gas, nuclear) must be scaled up and down to match the rise and fall of electrical production from intermittent sources (see load following power plant). While hydroelectric and natural gas plants can be quickly scaled up or down to follow the demand, wind, coal and nuclear plants take considerable time to respond to load. Utilities with less natural gas or hydroelectric generation are thus more reliant on demand management, grid interconnections or costly pumped storage.

Demand side management and grid storage

[edit]

The demand side can also store electricity from the grid, for example charging a battery electric vehicle stores energy for a vehicle and storage heaters, district heating storage or ice storage provide thermal storage for buildings.[5] At present this storage serves only to shift consumption to the off-peak time of day, no electricity is returned to the grid.

The need for grid storage to provide peak power is reduced by demand side time of use pricing, one of the benefits of smart meters. At the household level, consumers may choose less expensive off-peak times to wash and dry clothes, use dishwashers, take showers and cook. As well, commercial and industrial users will take advantage of cost savings by deferring some processes to off-peak times.

Regional impacts from the unpredictable operation of wind power has created a new need for interactive demand response, where the utility communicates with the demand. Historically this was only done in cooperation with large industrial consumers, but now may be expanded to entire grids.[6] For instance, a few large-scale projects in Europe link variations in wind power to change industrial food freezer loads, causing small variations in temperature. If communicated on a grid-wide scale, small changes to heating/cooling temperatures would instantly change consumption across the grid.

A report released in December 2013 by the United States Department of Energy further describes the potential benefits of energy storage and demand side technologies to the electric grid: "Modernizing the electric system will help the nation meet the challenge of handling projected energy needs—including addressing climate change by integrating more energy from renewable sources and enhancing efficiency from non-renewable energy processes. Advances to the electric grid must maintain a robust and resilient electricity delivery system, and energy storage can play a significant role in meeting these challenges by improving the operating capabilities of the grid, lowering cost and ensuring high reliability, as well as deferring and reducing infrastructure investments. Finally, energy storage can be instrumental for emergency preparedness because of its ability to provide backup power as well as grid stabilization services".[7]

Energy storage for grid applications

[edit]

Energy storage assets are a valuable asset for the electrical grid.[8] They can provide benefits and services such as load management, power quality and uninterruptible power supply to increase the efficiency and supply security. This becomes more and more important in regard to the energy transition and the need for a more efficient and sustainable energy system.

Numerous energy storage technologies (pumped-storage hydroelectricity, electric battery, flow battery, flywheel energy storage, supercapacitor etc.) are suitable for grid-scale applications, however their characteristics differ. For example, a pumped-hydro station is well suited for bulk load management applications due to their large capacities and power capabilities. However, suitable locations are limited and their usefulness fades when dealing with localized power quality issues. On the other hand, flywheels and capacitors are most effective in maintaining power quality but lack storage capacities to be used in larger applications. These constraints are a natural limitation to the storage's applicability.

Several studies have developed interest and investigated the suitability or selection of the optimal energy storage for certain applications. Literature surveys comprise the available information of the state-of-the-art and compare the storage's uses based on current existing projects.[9][10] Other studies take a step further in evaluating energy storage with each other and rank their fitness based on multiple-criteria decision analysis.[11][12] Another paper proposed an evaluation scheme through the investigation and modelling of storage as equivalent circuits.[13][14] An indexing approach has also been suggested in a few studies, but is still in the novel stages.[15] In order to gain increased economic potential of grid connected energy storage systems, it is of interest to consider a portfolio with several services for one or more applications for an energy storage system. By doing so, several revenue streams can be achieved by a single storage and thereby also increasing the degree of utilization.[16] To mention two examples, a combination of frequency response and reserve services is examined in,[17] meanwhile load peak shaving together with power smoothing is considered in.[18]

Forms

[edit]

Air

[edit]

CO
2

[edit]

Italian firm Energy Dome uses supercritical (liquified by compression) CO
2 drawn from an atmospheric gasholder. Energy is accessed by evaporating and expanding the CO
2 into a turbine. The gas is returned to the atmospheric gasholder, until the next charging cycle. The system can be run in a closed loop, avoiding emissions. In July, 2024, the US DOE Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations awarded $7 million to an Energy Dome test project hosted by US gas and electricity supplier Alliant Energy.[19]

Compressed air

[edit]
Main article: Compressed-air energy storage

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) stores electricity by compressing air. The compressed air is typically stored in large underground caverns. The expanding air can be used to drive turbines, converting the energy back into electricity. As air cools when expanding, some heat needs to be added in this stage to prevent freezing. This can be provided by heat stored from a low-carbon source, or in the case of advanced CAES, from reusing the heat that is released when air is compressed. As of 2023, there are three advanced CAES project in operation in China.[20] Typical efficiencies of advanced CAES are between 60% and 80%.[21]

Liquid air

[edit]
Main articles: Liquid air and Cryogenic energy storage

Another electricity storage method is to compress and cool air, turning it into liquid air, which can be stored, and expanded when needed, turning a turbine, generating electricity. This is called liquid air energy storage (LAES).[22] The air would be cooled to temperatures of −196 °C (−320.8 °F) to become liquid. Like with compressed air, heat is needed for the expansion step. In the case of LAES, low-grade industrial heat can be used for this.[23] Energy efficiency for LEAS lies between 50% and 70%. As of 2023, LAES is moving from pre-commercial to commercial.[24]

Batteries

[edit]
Main article: Battery energy storage system
A 900 watt direct current light plant using 16 separate lead acid battery cells (32 volts) from 1917.[25]
Learning curve of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.[26][27]

Lithium-ion batteries

[edit]

Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used batteries for grid applications, as of 2024, following the application of batteries in electric vehicles (EVs). In comparison with EVs, grid batteries require less energy density, meaning that more emphasis can be put on costs, the ability to charge and discharge often and lifespan. This has led to a shift towards lithium iron phosphate batteries (LFP batteries), which is cheaper and has a longer lifespan than traditional lithium-ion batteries.[28]

Costs of batteries are declining rapidly; from 2010 to 2023 costs fell by 90%.[29] As of 2024, utility-scale systems account for two thirds of added capacity, and home applications (behind-the-meter) for one third.[30] Lithium-ion batteries is highly suited to short-duration storage (<8h), but unlikely to become the cheapest form of electricity storage for longer-duration storage.[28]

Electric vehicles
[edit]
Main articles: Electric vehicle and Vehicle-to-grid
Nissan Leaf, the world's top-selling highway-capable electric car as of 2015

The electric vehicle fleet has a large overall battery capacity, which can potentially be used for grid energy storage. This could be in the form of vehicle-to-grid (V2G), where cars store energy when they are not in use, or by repurposing batteries from cars at the end of the vehicle's life. Car batteries typically range between 33 and 100 kWh;[31] for comparison, a typical upper-middle-class household in Spain might use some 18 kWh in a day.[32]

As of 2024, there have been more than 100 V2G pilot projects globally.[33] The effect of V2G charging on battery life can be positive or negative. Increased cycling of batteries can lead to faster degradation, but due to better management of the state of charge and gentler charging and discharing, V2G might instead increase the lifetime of batteries.[33][34] Second-hand batteries may be useable for stationary grid storage for roughly 6 years, when their capacity drops from roughly 80% to 60% of the initial capacity. LFP batteries are particularly suitable to second-use application, as they degrade less than other lithium-ion batteries and recycling is less attractive as their materials are not as valuable.[33]

Other battery types

[edit]

In redox flow batteries, energy is stored in liquids, which are placed in two separate tanks. When charging or discharging, the liquids are pumped into a cell with the electrodes. The amount of energy stored (as set by the size of the tanks) can be adjusted separately from the power output (as set by the speed of the pumps).[35] Flow batteries have the advantages of low capital cost for charge-discharge duration over 4 h, and of long durability (many years). Flow batteries are inferior to lithium-ion batteries in terms of energy efficiency, averaging efficiencies between 60% and 75%. Vanadium redox batteries is most commercially advanced type of flow battery, with roughly 40 companies making them as of 2022.[36]

Sodium-ion batteries are possible alternative to lithium-ion batteries, as they rely on cheaper materials and less on critical materials. It has a lower energy density, and possibly a shorter lifespan. If produced at the same scale as lithium-ion batteries, they may become 20% to 30% cheaper.[35] Iron-air batteries may be suitable for even longer duration storage than flow batteries (weeks), but the technology is not yet mature.[37]

Technology comparison[37]
Technology Less than 4h 4h to 8h Days Weeks Seasons
Lithium-ion Yes Yes No No No
Sodium-ion Yes Yes No No No
Vanadium flow Maybe Yes Yes No No
Iron-air No No Maybe Yes No

Flywheel

[edit]
Main articles: Flywheel storage power system and Flywheel energy storage
NASA G2 flywheel

Flywheels store energy in the form of mechanical energy. They are suited to supplying high levels of electricity over minutes and can also be charged rapidly. They have a long lifetime and can be used in settings with widely varying temperatures. The technology is mature, but more expensive than batteries and supercapacitors and not used frequently.[23]

Powercorp in Australia have been developing applications using wind turbines, flywheels and low load diesel (LLD) technology to maximize the wind input to small grids. A system installed in Coral Bay, Western Australia, uses wind turbines coupled with a flywheel based control system and LLDs. The flywheel technology enables the wind turbines to supply up to 95 percent of Coral Bay's energy supply at times, with a total annual wind penetration of 45 percent.[38]

Hydrogen and chemical storage

[edit]
Main articles: Hydrogen economy and Hydrogen storage
See also: Combined cycle hydrogen power plant

Various power-to-gas technologies exist that can convert excess electricity into an easier to store chemical. The lowest cost and most efficient one is hydrogen. However, it is easier to use synthetic methane with existing infrastructure and appliances, as it is very similar to natural gas.[39]

As of 2024, there have been a number of demonstration plants where hydrogen is burned in a gas turbines, either co-firing with natural gas, or on its own. Similarly, a number of coal plants have demonstrated it is possible to co-fire ammonia when burning coal. In 2022, there was also a small pilot to burn pure ammonia in a gas turbine.[40] A portion of existing gas turbines are capable of co-firing hydrogen, which means there is, as a lower estimate, 80 GW of capacity ready to burn hydrogen.[41]

Hydrogen

[edit]

Hydrogen can be used as a long-term storage medium.[42] Green hydrogen is produced from the electrolysis of water, and converted back into electricity in an internal combustion engine, or a fuel cell, with a round-trip efficiency of roughly 41%.[43] Together with thermal storage, it is expected to be best suited to seasonal energy storage.[44]

The price ratio between purchase and sale of electricity must be at least proportional to the efficiency in order for the system to be economic. Whether hydrogen can use natural gas infrastructure depends on the network construction materials, standards in joints, and storage pressure.[45]

Hydrogen can be stored aboveground in tanks or underground in larger quantities. Underground storage is easiest in salt caverns, but only a certain number of places have suitable geology.[46] Storage in porous rocks, for instance in empty gas fields and some aquifers, can store hydrogen at a larger scale, but this type of storage may have some drawbacks. For instance, some of the hydrogen may leak, or react into H2S or methane.[47]

Ammonia

[edit]

Hydrogen can be converted into ammonia in a reaction with nitrogen in the Haber-Bosch process. Ammonia, a gas at room temperature, is more expensive to produce than hydrogen. However, it can be stored more cheaply than hydrogen. Tank storage is usually done at between one and ten times atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of −30 °C (−22 °F), in liquid form.[48] Ammonia can be burned cleanly: water and nitrogen are released, but no CO2 and little or no nitrogen oxides. Ammonia has multiple uses besides being an energy carrier: it is the basis for the production of many chemicals; the most common use is for fertilizer.[49] Just like natural gas, the stored ammonia can be used as a thermal fuel for transportation and electricity generation or used in a fuel cell.[50]

Methane

[edit]

It is possible to further convert hydrogen into methane via the Sabatier reaction, a chemical reaction which combines CO2 and H2. While the reaction that converts CO from gasified coal into CH4 is mature, the process to form methane out of CO2 is less so. Efficiencies of around 80% one-way can be achieved, that is, some 20% of the energy in hydrogen is lost in the reaction.[51]

Hydroelectricity

[edit]

Pumped water

[edit]
Main article: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
Mingtan Pumped-Storage Hydro Power Plant dam in Nantou, Taiwan

In 2023, world pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS) was the largest storage technology, with a capacity of 181 GW, compared to some 55 GW of storage in utility-scale batteries and 33 GW of behind-the-meter batteries.[52] PHS is well suited to evening out daily variations, pumping water to a high storage reservoir during off-peak hours, and using this water during peak times for hydroelectric generation.[53] The efficiency of PHS ranges between 75% and 85%, and the response time is fast, between seconds and minutes.[54]

PHS systems can only be built in limited locations. Pumped storage systems may also be possible by using deep salt caverns or building a hollow deposit at the seabed, and using the sea itself as the higher reservoir.[53] PHS construction can be costly, takes relatively long and can be disruptive for the environment and people living nearby.[53] The efficiency of pumped hydro can be increased by placing floating solar panels on top, which prevent evaporation. This also improves the efficiency of the solar panels, as they are constantly cooled.[55]

Hydroelectric dams

[edit]
Fetsui hydroelectric dam in New Taipei, Taiwan

Hydroelectric dams with large reservoirs can also be operated to provide peak generation at times of peak demand. Water is stored in the reservoir during periods of low demand and released through the plant when demand is higher. While technically no electricity is stored, the net effect is the similar as pumped storage. The amount of storage available in hydroelectric dams is much larger than in pumped storage. Upgrades may be needed so that these dams can respond to variable demand. For instance, additional investment may be needed in transmission lines, or additional turbines may need to be installed to increase the peak output from the dam.[56]

Dams usually have multiple purposes. As well as energy generation, they often play a role in flood defense and protection of ecosystems, recreation, and they supply water for irrigation. This means it is not always possible to change their operation much, but even with low flexibility, they may still play an important role in responding to changes in wind and solar production.[57]

Thermal

[edit]
Main article: Thermal energy storage

In Denmark the direct storage of electricity is perceived as too expensive for very large scale use, albeit significant use is made of existing Norwegian Hydro. Instead, the use of existing hot water storage tanks connected to district heating schemes, heated by either electrode boilers or heat pumps, is seen as a preferable approach. The stored heat is then transmitted to dwellings using district heating pipes.

Molten salt is used to store heat collected by a solar power tower so that it can be used to generate electricity in bad weather or at night.[58]

Building heating and cooling systems can be controlled to store thermal energy in either the building's mass or dedicated thermal storage tanks. This thermal storage can provide load-shifting or even more complex ancillary services by increasing power consumption (charging the storage) during off-peak times and lowering power consumption (discharging the storage) during higher-priced peak times.[59] For example, off-peak electricity can be used to make ice from water, and the ice can be stored. The stored ice can be used to cool the air in a large building which would have normally used electric AC, thereby shifting the electric load to off-peak hours. On other systems stored ice is used to cool the intake air of a gas turbine generator, thus increasing the on-peak generation capacity and the on-peak efficiency.

A pumped-heat electricity storage system uses a highly reversible heat engine/heat pump to pump heat between two storage vessels, heating one and cooling the other. The UK-based engineering company Isentropic that is developing the system claims a potential electricity-in to electricity-out round-trip efficiency of 72–80%.[60]

A Carnot battery is a type of energy storage systems that stores electricity in heat storage and converts the stored heat back to electricity via thermodynamics cycles. This concept has been investigated and developed by many research projects recently.[61] One of the advantage of this type of system is that the cost at large-scale and long-duration of thermal storage could be much lower than other storage technologies.

Gravity

[edit]
Main article: Energy storage § Solid mass gravitational

Alternatives include storing energy by moving large solid masses upward against gravity. This can be achieved inside old mine shafts[62] or in specially constructed towers where heavy weights are winched up to store energy and allowed a controlled descent to release it.[63][64]

Economics

[edit]

The levelized cost of storing electricity depends highly on storage type and purpose; as subsecond-scale frequency regulation, minute/hour-scale peaker plants, or day/week-scale season storage.[65][66][67] Using battery storage is said to have a levelized cost of $120[68] to $170[69] per MWh. This compares with open cycle gas turbines which, as of 2020, have a cost of around $151–198 per MWh.[70]

Generally speaking, energy storage is economical when the marginal cost of electricity varies more than the costs of storing and retrieving the energy plus the price of energy lost in the process. For instance, assume a pumped-storage reservoir can pump to its upper reservoir a volume of water capable of producing 1,200 MW·h after all losses are factored in (evaporation and seeping in the reservoir, efficiency losses, etc.). If the marginal cost of electricity during off-peak times is $15 per MW·h, and the reservoir operates at 80% efficiency (i.e., 1,500 MW·h are consumed and 1,200 MW·h of energy are retrieved), then the total cost of filling the reservoir is $22,500. If all of the stored energy is sold the following day during peak hours for an average $40 per MW·h, then the reservoir will see revenues of $48,000 for the day, for a gross profit of $25,500.

However, the marginal cost of electricity varies because of the varying operational and fuel costs of different classes of generators.[71] At one extreme, base load power plants such as coal-fired power plants and nuclear power plants are low marginal cost generators, as they have high capital and maintenance costs but low fuel costs. At the other extreme, peaking power plants such as gas turbine natural gas plants burn expensive fuel but are cheaper to build, operate and maintain. To minimize the total operational cost of generating power, base load generators are dispatched most of the time, while peak power generators are dispatched only when necessary, generally when energy demand peaks. This is called "economic dispatch".

Demand for electricity from the world's various grids varies over the course of the day and from season to season. For the most part, variation in electric demand is met by varying the amount of electrical energy supplied from primary sources. Increasingly, however, operators are storing lower-cost energy produced at night, then releasing it to the grid during the peak periods of the day when it is more valuable.[72] In areas where hydroelectric dams exist, release can be delayed until demand is greater; this form of storage is common and can make use of existing reservoirs. This is not storing "surplus" energy produced elsewhere, but the net effect is the same – although without the efficiency losses. Renewable supplies with variable production, like wind and solar power, tend to increase the net variation in electric load, increasing the opportunity for grid energy storage.

It may be more economical to find an alternative market for unused electricity, rather than try and store it. High Voltage Direct Current allows for transmission of electricity, losing only 3% per 1000 km.

Load leveling

[edit]

The demand for electricity from consumers and industry is constantly changing, broadly within the following categories:

  • Seasonal (during dark winters more electric lighting and heating is required, while in other climates hot weather boosts the requirement for air conditioning)
  • Weekly (most industry closes at the weekend, lowering demand)
  • Daily (such as the morning peak as offices open and air conditioners get switched on)
  • Hourly (one method for estimating television viewing figures in the United Kingdom is to measure the power spikes during advertisement breaks or after programmes when viewers go to switch a kettle on)[73]
  • Transient (fluctuations due to individuals' actions, differences in power transmission efficiency and other small factors that need to be accounted for)

There are currently three main methods for dealing with changing demand:

  • Electrical devices generally having a working voltage range that they require, commonly 110–120 V or 220–240 V. Minor variations in load are automatically smoothed by slight variations in the voltage available across the system.
  • Power plants can be run below their normal output, with the facility to increase the amount they generate almost instantaneously. This is termed "spinning reserve".
  • Additional generation can be brought online. Typically, these would be hydroelectric or gas turbines, which can be started in a matter of minutes.

The problem with standby gas turbines is higher costs; expensive generating equipment is unused much of the time. Spinning reserve also comes at a cost; plants running below maximum output are usually less efficient. Grid energy storage is used to shift generation from times of peak load to off-peak hours. Power plants are able to run at their peak efficiency during nights and weekends.

Supply-demand leveling strategies may be intended to reduce the cost of supplying peak power or to compensate for the intermittent generation of wind and solar power.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Cozzi, Petropoulos & Wanner 2024, p. 68.
  2. ^ IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch6 2022, pp. 653, 656.
  3. ^ IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch6 2022, p. 651.
  4. ^ Armstrong & Chiang 2022, pp. 6–7.
  5. ^ "Grid Energy Storage" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. December 2013. p. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
  6. ^ Doug Hurley; Paul Peterson; Melissa Whited (May 2013). "Demand Response as a Power System Resource" (PDF). RAP Energy Solutions, Synapse Energy Economics. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
  7. ^ "Energy Department Releases Grid Energy Storage Report". 12 December 2013. Archived from the original on 13 May 2017.
  8. ^ Lai, Chun Sing; Locatelli, Giorgio; Pimm, Andrew; Wu, Xiaomei; Lai, Loi Lei (September 2020). "A review on long-term electrical power system modeling with energy storage". Journal of Cleaner Production. 280: 124298. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124298. hdl:11311/1204822.
  9. ^ Palizban, Omid; Kauhaniemi, Kimmo (May 2016). "Energy storage systems in modern grids—Matrix of technologies and applications". Journal of Energy Storage. 6: 248–259. Bibcode:2016JEnSt...6..248P. doi:10.1016/j.est.2016.02.001.
  10. ^ Luo, Xing; Wang, Jihong; Dooner, Mark; Clarke, Jonathan (1 January 2015). "Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation". Applied Energy. 137: 511–536. Bibcode:2015ApEn..137..511L. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.09.081.
  11. ^ Daim, Tugrul U.; Li, Xin; Kim, Jisun; Simms, Scott (June 2012). "Evaluation of energy storage technologies for integration with renewable electricity: Quantifying expert opinions". Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. 3: 29–49. Bibcode:2012EIST....3...29D. doi:10.1016/j.eist.2012.04.003.
  12. ^ Pham, Cong-Toan; Månsson, Daniel (November 2015). "Suitability analysis of Fuzzy Logic as an evaluation method for the selection of energy storage technologies in Smart Grid applications". 2015 International Symposium on Smart Electric Distribution Systems and Technologies (EDST). Vol. 2015 International Symposium on Smart Electric Distribution Systems and Technologies (EDST). pp. 452–457. doi:10.1109/SEDST.2015.7315251. ISBN 978-1-4799-7736-9. S2CID 42921444.
  13. ^ Pham, Cong-Toan; Månsson, Daniel (October 2017). "On the physical system modelling of energy storages as equivalent circuits with parameter description for variable load demand (Part I)". Journal of Energy Storage. 13: 73–84. Bibcode:2017JEnSt..13...73P. doi:10.1016/j.est.2017.05.015.
  14. ^ Pham, Cong-Toan; Månsson, Daniel (August 2018). "Optimal energy storage sizing using equivalent circuit modelling for prosumer applications (Part II)". Journal of Energy Storage. 18: 1–15. Bibcode:2018JEnSt..18....1P. doi:10.1016/j.est.2018.04.015. S2CID 64857425.
  15. ^ Raza, Syed Shabbar; Janajreh, Isam; Ghenai, Chaouki (December 2014). "Sustainability index approach as a selection criteria for energy storage system of an intermittent renewable energy source". Applied Energy. 136: 909–920. Bibcode:2018JEnSt..18....1P. doi:10.1016/j.est.2018.04.015. S2CID 64857425.
  16. ^ Moreno, Rodrigo; Moreira, Roberto; Strbac, Goran (January 2015). "A MILP model for optimising multi-service portfolios of distributed energy storage" (PDF). Applied Energy. 137: 554–566. Bibcode:2015ApEn..137..554M. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.08.080. hdl:10044/1/39706.
  17. ^ Lee, Rachel; Homan, Samuel; Mac Dowell, Niall; Brown, Solomon (15 February 2019). "A closed-loop analysis of grid scale battery systems providing frequency response and reserve services in a variable inertia grid" (PDF). Applied Energy. 236: 961–972. Bibcode:2019ApEn..236..961L. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.12.044. S2CID 116444177.
  18. ^ Reihani, Ehsan; Motalleb, Mahdi; Ghorbani, Reza; Saad Saoud, Lyes (February 2016). "Load peak shaving and power smoothing of a distribution grid with high renewable energy penetration". Renewable Energy. 86: 1372–1379. Bibcode:2016REne...86.1372R. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2015.09.050.
  19. ^ Casey, Tina (26 August 2024). "Giant Bubble Of CO2 For Long Duration Energy Storage". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  20. ^ Smith 2023, p. 19.
  21. ^ Zhang, Xinjing; Gao, Ziyu; Zhou, Bingqian; Guo, Huan; Xu, Yujie; Ding, Yulong; Chen, Haisheng (2024). "Advanced Compressed Air Energy Storage Systems: Fundamentals and Applications". Engineering. 34: 246–269. doi:10.1016/j.eng.2023.12.008. ISSN 2095-8099.
  22. ^ Smith 2023, p. 20.
  23. ^ a b IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch6 2022, p. 655.
  24. ^ Liang, Ting; Zhang, Tongtong; Lin, Xipeng; Alessio, Tafone; Legrand, Mathieu; He, Xiufen; Kildahl, Harriet; Lu, Chang; Chen, Haisheng; Romagnoli, Alessandro; Wang, Li; He, Qing; Li, Yongliang; Yang, Lizhong; Ding, Yulong (2023). "Liquid air energy storage technology: a comprehensive review of research, development and deployment". Progress in Energy. 5 (1): 012002. doi:10.1088/2516-1083/aca26a. ISSN 2516-1083.
  25. ^ Hawkins, Nehemiah (1917). Hawkins Electrical Guide ...: Questions, Answers & Illustrations; a Progressive Course of Study for Engineers, Electricians, Students and Those Desiring to Acquire a Working Knowledge of Electricity and Its Applications; a Practical Treatise. T. Audel & Company. pp. 989–.
  26. ^ Ziegler, Micah S.; Trancik, Jessika E. (2021). "Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline". Energy & Environmental Science. 14 (4): 1635–1651. arXiv:2007.13920. doi:10.1039/D0EE02681F. ISSN 1754-5692. S2CID 220830992.
  27. ^ "The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades". Our World in Data. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
  28. ^ a b Cozzi, Petropoulos & Wanner 2024, p. 45.
  29. ^ Cozzi, Petropoulos & Wanner 2024, p. 18.
  30. ^ Cozzi, Petropoulos & Wanner 2024, p. 20.
  31. ^ Xu, Chengjian; Behrens, Paul; Gasper, Paul; Smith, Kandler; Hu, Mingming; Tukker, Arnold; Steubing, Bernhard (17 January 2023). "Electric vehicle batteries alone could satisfy short-term grid storage demand by as early as 2030". Nature Communications. 14 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-022-35393-0. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 9845221.
  32. ^ García-Vázquez, Carlos Andrés; Espinoza-Ortega, Hernán; Llorens-Iborra, Francisco; Fernández-Ramírez, Luis M. (1 November 2022). "Feasibility analysis of a hybrid renewable energy system with vehicle-to-home operations for a house in off-grid and grid-connected applications". Sustainable Cities and Society. 86: 104124. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2022.104124. ISSN 2210-6707.
  33. ^ a b c Aguilar Lopez, Fernando; Lauinger, Dirk; Vuille, François; Müller, Daniel B. (16 May 2024). "On the potential of vehicle-to-grid and second-life batteries to provide energy and material security". Nature Communications. 15 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-024-48554-0. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 11099178.
  34. ^ Bhoir, Shubham; Caliandro, Priscilla; Brivio, Claudio (1 December 2021). "Impact of V2G service provision on battery life". Journal of Energy Storage. 44: 103178. doi:10.1016/j.est.2021.103178. ISSN 2352-152X.
  35. ^ a b Cozzi, Petropoulos & Wanner 2024, p. 46.
  36. ^ Tolmachev, Yuriy V. (1 March 2023). "Review—Flow Batteries from 1879 to 2022 and Beyond". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 170 (3): 030505. Bibcode:2023JElS..170c0505T. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/acb8de. ISSN 0013-4651.
  37. ^ a b Cozzi, Petropoulos & Wanner 2024, p. 47.
  38. ^ "Coral Bay PowerStore Flywheel Project". DOE Global Energy Storage Database. Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2017.,
  39. ^ Letcher 2022, p. 606.
  40. ^ Remme & Bermudez Menendez 2024, pp. 54–55.
  41. ^ Remme & Bermudez Menendez 2024, p. 57.
  42. ^ Smith 2023, p. 5.
  43. ^ Smith 2023, p. 14.
  44. ^ IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch6 2022, p. 653.
  45. ^ "Conversion of the UK gas system to transport hydrogen". Archived from the original on 16 May 2016.
  46. ^ Armstrong & Chiang 2022, p. 150.
  47. ^ Miocic, Johannes; Heinemann, Niklas; Edlmann, Katriona; Scafidi, Jonathan; Molaei, Fatemeh; Alcalde, Juan (30 August 2023). "Underground hydrogen storage: a review". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 528 (1): 73–86. doi:10.1144/SP528-2022-88. ISSN 0305-8719.
  48. ^ Smith 2023, p. 18.
  49. ^ Service, Robert F. (12 July 2018). "Ammonia—a renewable fuel made from sun, air, and water—could power the globe without carbon". Science | AAAS. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  50. ^ Lan, Rong; Tao, Shanwen (5 May 2018). "Ammonia as a Suitable Fuel for Fuel Cells". Frontiers in Energy Research. 2. doi:10.3389/fenrg.2014.00035.
  51. ^ Letcher 2022, p. 602.
  52. ^ "Global installed energy storage capacity by scenario, 2023 and 2030 – Charts – Data & Statistics". International Energy Agency. Retrieved 25 August 2024.
  53. ^ a b c IPCC AR6 WG3 Ch6 2022, p. 654.
  54. ^ Javed, Muhammad Shahzad; Ma, Tao; Jurasz, Jakub; Amin, Muhammad Yasir (1 April 2020). "Solar and wind power generation systems with pumped hydro storage: Review and future perspectives". Renewable Energy. 148: 176–192. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2019.11.157. ISSN 0960-1481.
  55. ^ IRENA 2020, p. 7.
  56. ^ Armstrong & Chiang 2022, pp. 69–70.
  57. ^ Armstrong & Chiang 2022, pp. 69.
  58. ^ Advantages of Using Molten Salt Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Tom Mancini, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM Accessed December 2007
  59. ^ Lee, Zachary E.; Sun, Qingxuan; Ma, Zhao; Wang, Jiangfeng; MacDonald, Jason S.; Zhang, K. Max (February 2020). "Providing Grid Services With Heat Pumps: A Review". Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Buildings and Cities. 1 (1). doi:10.1115/1.4045819. S2CID 213898377.
  60. ^ "Isentropic's PHES Technology". Archived from the original on 10 October 2014.
  61. ^ Dumont, Olivier; Frate, Guido Francesco; Pillai, Aditya; Lecompte, Steven; De paepe, Michel; Lemort, Vincent (2020). "Carnot battery technology: A state-of-the-art review". Journal of Energy Storage. 32: 101756. Bibcode:2020JEnSt..3201756D. doi:10.1016/j.est.2020.101756. hdl:2268/251473. ISSN 2352-152X. S2CID 225019981.
  62. ^ "How UK's disused mine shafts could be used to store renewable energy". The Guardian. 21 October 2019.
  63. ^ Gourley, Perry (31 August 2020). "Edinburgh firm behind incredible gravity energy storage project hails milestone". www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com. Retrieved 1 September 2020.
  64. ^ Akshat Rathi (18 August 2018). "Stacking concrete blocks is a surprisingly efficient way to store energy". Quartz.
  65. ^ "Some energy storage already cost competitive, new valuation study shows". Utility Dive. 24 November 2015. Archived from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
  66. ^ "Lazard's Levelized Cost of Storage Analysis" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
  67. ^ Lai, Chun Sing; McCulloch, Malcolm D. (March 2017). "Levelized cost of electricity for solar photovoltaic and electrical energy storage". Applied Energy. 190: 191–203. Bibcode:2017ApEn..190..191L. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.153. S2CID 113623853.
  68. ^ Chip Register (13 January 2015). "The Battery Revolution: A Technology Disruption, Economics and Grid Level Application Discussion with Eos Energy Storage". Forbes. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016.
  69. ^ "Eos Energy Storage – Technology and Products". eosenergystorage.com. Archived from the original on 6 February 2014.
  70. ^ "Levelized Cost of Energy and of Storage". Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  71. ^ Lai, Chun Sing; Jia, Youwei; Xu, Zhao; Lai, Loi Lei; Li, Xuecong; Cao, Jun; McCulloch, Malcolm D. (December 2017). "Levelized cost of electricity for photovoltaic/biogas power plant hybrid system with electrical energy storage degradation costs". Energy Conversion and Management. 153: 34–47. Bibcode:2017ECM...153...34L. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2017.09.076.
  72. ^ Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2006 Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Table 8.2a
  73. ^ "BBC News – Christmas Television – The great TV ratings war". BBC. Archived from the original on 12 January 2009.

Cited sources

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grid_energy_storage&oldid=1252033897"